Stuff You Should Know Part 2: Elizabethan and Jacobean England & Theatre (Revised)
This is Part 2 of our intro series “Stuff You Should Know,” which covers some background and context into the life and times of Shakespeare, because art isn’t created in a vacuum. In this episode, we’ll be covering some basic information about early modern England during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. And when we say basic, we mean basic. This is a quick overview of early modern England, more importantly the England that influenced Shakespeare.
In this episode, we’ll be covering some basic information about the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, as well as the public theatres during those respective eras. We'll review how the transition from feudalism to mercantilism changed English society and discuss facets of early modern English society such as fashion, social mobility, religious freedom, and public health. We will give an overview the history of the public theatre in England and discuss some key features of what theatre-making was like for Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
Want more about the Elizabethan and Jacobean England & Theatre? Check out these episodes that go more in depth on topics we touch on in this episode:
Kourtney Smith (KS): This is a revision of part two of our intro series, Stuff You Should Know, which covers some background and context into the life and times of Shakespeare, because art isn't created in a vacuum. And we are revising the intro series because we, after almost four years of podcasting, know a lot more now than we knew back then. And we want to reflect this in an episode glow-up for listeners old and new.
Elyse Sharp (ES): In this episode, we'll be covering some basic information about early modern England during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. And when we say basic, we mean basic. This is a quick overview of early modern England, more importantly, the England that influenced Shakespeare.
This era is certainly not a monolith, and we do want to acknowledge that. In fact, we discuss many of the variables of early modern England in other episodes. However, this series is all about the fundamentals.
KS: In this episode, we'll be covering some basic information about the Elizabethan and
Jacobean periods, as well as the public theaters during those respective periods.
ES: First, let's talk about Elizabethan and Jacobean England.
KS: As we discussed in part one, Shakespeare lived during the early modern era in England under both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I's reigns. During this time, society rapidly changed from a centuries-long medieval feudal society into a new early modern society under the Tudor and Stuart dynasties.
ES: At the start of the Tudor dynasty, feudalism was beginning to crumble. Feudalism was a combination of legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that structured society around the holding of land in the exchange for service or labor. This system had a steep hierarchy that was codified for the social elites.
KS: In the feudal system, the monarch was the absolute ruler of all land and, since there was so much land, would divvy it up to loyal nobles, knights, and vassals. Those loyal nobles, knights, and vassals would then divvy up their portion to other loyal nobles, knights, and vassals until it's broken down enough that it's manageable. The nobles were subtenants who cared for the land in the name of the monarch. This is also how English families got land and titles.
ES: But nobles didn't work the land themselves. Peasants were brought on to work in harsh and restrictive conditions in which they worked but owned nothing themselves. Some peasants were free from this system, but many weren't. The feudal system ripped many of their agency.
KS: By Elizabeth's reign, England's economic system was reshaping into a mercantile system due to a rise in trade and commerce for English merchants. Mercantilism was an economic system that aimed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. It's often regarded as an early form of capitalism.
ES: Early artisans and merchants used commerce for merchant trade and created businesses. These merchants exchanged goods and services directly with the public for the purpose of making money. A central feature of mercantilism, and perhaps the most famous institution of the mercantile economy, was merchant guilds.
KS: However, the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods actually saw a decline in merchant guilds and a movement towards joint-stock companies. These proto-corporations were typically created by royal charters and allowed individuals, or shareholders, to pool their resources in order to share profits. Joint-stock companies would eventually exist across most industries in early modern London. In fact, Shakespeare was a shareholder of the Globe Theatre.
ES: To learn more about the complex evolution of England's economy from prehistoric Britain to early modern England, please listen to our mini-episode, Commerce and Trade in Shakespeare's Time.
KS: So, by Elizabeth's reign, England had, for the most part, left feudalism behind and was in a mercantile society. This new system changed the economic landscapes of both the countryside and the city, so folks were leaving the countryside for opportunities in large cities such as London. London quadrupled in population from 50,000 in 1520 to 200,000 in 1600, and London saw a rise in urbanization.
ES: London was the epicenter of the early modern era. Historians depict the Elizabethan era as a golden age in English history, and Shakespeare was alive and working in public theatre houses during this golden age. But what was it like for Londoners during this period?
KS: The philosophy of individualism, which comes from humanism, was rising amongst the masses. Individualism and the wealth from mercantilism brought a demand for new markets like art, literature, and theatre. The newly established merchant class wanted to flaunt their wealth and show off to society.
ES: Fashion was inspired by France and Spain, hoop skirts for women and clean white stockings for men. Men and women both wore starched ruffles to keep fabrics clean during an era when hygiene was not prioritized. There was an interest in portrait painting, lockets for beloveds, and books. Publishing was a booming industry during early modern England, and popular books ranged from a variety of genres. Publishing houses were publishing variations of the Bible—shout out to the King James Bible—medicinal books, recipe books, conduct books, poetry, and translations of popular writings, travel books, and more. Folks were also interested in leisure activities like gambling, sports, and theatre.
KS: But not everything was rosy in Elizabethan England. While social mobility did exist due to this new economic system, social ranks were still quite rigid. Ranks included the nobility, gentry, yeoman, and poor. And the monarchy and government codified these social rankings through laws such as the sumptuary laws. Sumptuary laws were imposed to curb the expenditure of the people. Such laws might apply to food, beverages, furniture, jewelry, and clothing. If you were of a specific rank, you were not allowed to purchase above your rank.
ES: Additionally, poverty and poor living conditions were really common in London. Rapid population growth led to great economic instability. Under the Tudors, rents tended to rise and wages to decline. The rich and poor became polarized. About a third of Tudor subjects lived in poverty. And social services didn't exist to the degree that they do now, so the wealthy were expected to pay alms to the impotent poor who couldn't work.
KS: But this expectation was a point of pride for Elizabethans. There was a lot of sympathy for the disabled poor, and we discussed this in our King Lear episode about mental health and disability during the time. However, Elizabethan society had little sympathy for the able-bodied unemployed. Vagabond laws were created during this period and included punishments like whipping and the stocks. The idea of a workhouse for the able-bodied poor was first suggested in 1576.
ES: Another tension in Tudor England was religious freedom. After King Henry VIII separated the Church of England from Catholic authority, established the monarch as the supreme head of the Church of England, and ignited the English Reformation, the official religion of England was determined by the monarch. Most Tudor and Stuart monarchs practiced Protestantism, with the exception of Mary I, whose reign briefly restored Catholicism as the religion of the Church of England.
Subjects were forced to follow the religion of the Church of England. If they didn't, they'd be charged with heresy. But many devout Brits didn't want to switch. This unrest led to many acts of violence in the name of religious freedom. One example of this violence is the infamous Gunpowder Plot. You can learn more about this event from our mini-episode, conveniently titled The Gunpowder Plot.
KS: There was temporary peace during Shakespeare's lifetime due to the passage of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Elizabeth reverted the Church of England back to Protestantism, but she and Parliament tried to create diplomacy through the settlement. The settlement's act of supremacy lowered her title from the Supreme Head of the Church of England to the Governess. It also repealed heresy laws. And the settlement's act of uniformity allowed some Catholic traditions to remain even though England was Protestant. It wasn't perfect, it did have opposition, but it did create more peace for some time.
ES: One last factor of Elizabethan life was public health. London was an incredibly dirty city during this period. Health problems and illnesses for Elizabethans were linked to sanitation. There were open sewers in the streets filled with garbage and human waste. Waste was dumped into the nearest river. Diseases were spread because of fleas, lice, and rats. There was no running water. These conditions would not have passed the public health department's standards. And unfortunately, these conditions, and the high rates of infant and child mortality due in part to these conditions, contributed to life expectancies. While it was possible for an Elizabethan to live into their 80s or 90s, the average life expectancy of an Elizabethan was around 42, or lower for urban poor. Of course, the wealthier ranks had longer average life expectancies into their 60s and 70s.
KS: And when there were medical or health emergencies, medical professionals of the time had very little knowledge about what actually caused the terrible illnesses and diseases of the age. And this is simply because science and medicine of the time did not know about advanced medical theories. In fact, common practices of the time were based on humoral theory and include remedies such as herbal folk recipes, medical astrology, and medical practices such as bloodletting and leeching. To learn more, listen to our Four Humors mini-episode and our Ophelia, Gertrude, and Female Agency episode and our Hamlet series.
ES: The worst was when there would be an outbreak of bubonic plague. This happened a few times during Shakespeare's life and was terrifying. The 1592-93 plague had a direct impact on Shakespeare when it closed all of the theaters in England. There was also an outbreak of the plague from 1603-1610 that resulted in roughly 60 months of closures. While in isolation, it is said Shakespeare wrote Antony and Cleopatra, Macbeth, and King Lear. He might have written other plays throughout patches of the bubonic plague as well. And this experience had a lasting effect on his writing because he also references plagues and illnesses quite frequently. To learn more, listen to our mini-episode on plague and quarantine.
KS: Speaking of theater, one popular recreational activity for an early modern person was attending the public theaters to see a play, such as maybe a Shakespeare play.
ES: But unlike our contemporary association of Shakespeare with culture, there wasn't anything refined about Elizabethan or Jacobean public theaters. These public theaters were open to all ranks of society and were supposed to have been raucous events. Crowds were large, audience members drank ale throughout, and there were no toilets in the theater. So if you had to relieve yourself, you might just do that there. But early modern people loved to be entertained. So public theaters had to compete for audiences, and they were also competing with other leisure activities like cockfighting, bear baiting, hunting, or gambling.
KS: In order to attract audiences, theaters sold cheap tickets and wrote content for all ranks of society. Shakespeare wrote beautiful poetry and was highbrow, but he also got accustomed to incorporating bawdy humor after dramatic scenes to keep his audiences, and probably his actors, happy. When we say bawdy, we mean bawdy B-A-W-D-Y, not B-O-D-Y.
This lewd and risqué humor was often sexual in nature and intended to be rude. Shakespeare also wrote thrilling violence into his plays, specifically by writing revenge tragedies to attract audiences. This genre was really popular during Shakespeare's time, and some of the violence in his plays might be better viewed through the lens of a revenge tragedy rather than a tragedy. For more on this genre, listen to our mini-episode, Shakespearean Vengeance: Exploring Revenge Tragedies in Early Modern England.
ES: Prior to the public theater, actors worked in a household troupe for a family and would entertain their guests in the home or travel with the family and entertain their hosts. An established company of players had a repertoire of six or seven plays and were versatile enough to adapt old work to new circumstances, similar to the players in Hamlet. Other troupes performed at fairs or courtyards.
KS: And theater troupes had strict laws placed upon them, so it was often safer to be a part of a household troupe. There was a lot of anti-theater rhetoric from authorities who feared unruly assembly. Tudor acts ordered harsh punishment for unlicensed performing, which included vagabond laws that targeted traveling actors and street performers. But the vagabond laws had an unintentional consequence. The laws sped up the establishment of professional actors when some professional actors built permanent public theaters.
ES: The first public theater in London opened in 1576, when Shakespeare was a boy. This theater, opened by actor James Burbage, was simply called The Theater. When public theaters emerged in great number around the 1570s, writers worked together to produce plays through a division of labor. Their aim was to build their repertoire so as to become self-sufficient. Successful companies became joint-stock companies, whose members bought a share of the company in order to support their interests. Early modern England had several other public theaters besides The Globe. In addition, early modern England had traveling theaters. To learn more, listen to our mini-episodes on The Globe and traveling theater companies.
KS: Then, the actor shareholders purchased plays, hired additional players, and negotiated with the authorities. A successful company could have eight sharers, a wardrobe master or attire man, a bookkeeper in charge of copies of plays, upwards of six boy apprentices, a pool of actors to draw on, musicians, stagehands, box office staff, also called gatherers, scribes, and so on. Plays generally were kept in-house in a copy of the play called the prompt book.
ES: Shakespeare was a member of a troupe called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, a group of players who performed under the patronage of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon. The troupe originally performed at The Theater before it was moved to the now-famous Globe Theater. The troupe then became the King's Men under the patronage of King James I in 1603. Big deal. Huge. All acting companies of the time were supported by noble patrons, and the theaters and plays had to be licensed and approved for performance by an executive member of the royal court, the Master of Revels. Other popular acting troupes include the Queen's Men, Leicester's Men, and the Admiral's Men. Other public theaters include the Curtain, the Rose, the Swan, and the Fortune.
KS: A handful of public houses, like the Globe, were on the River Thames. Most were designed in the shape of an O. These theaters were open-air, which meant that plays were produced during the daytime from May to October, rain or shine. A flag would fly to show a play would be performed that day. Even though the Globe's structure is a recognizable Elizabethan style, that wasn't the only theater structure that existed. London's players performed in indoor theaters, such as Blackfriars, or at court for nobility, or they would travel to the countryside.
ES: But the Globe was important to Shakespeare, so let's talk about it. The Globe Theater was raised with a false ceiling called the heavens. Trap doors were cut into the stage floor and led to an area that was referred to as hell. There was a large double door, center stage, and two exits. One stage right and one stage left. The audience sat or stood around three-quarters of the stage. There was a balcony for actors or musicians to perform on. Sometimes, wealthy audience members sat up on the balcony so as to be seen by the audience. The sets were minimalistic. All costumes were contemporary Elizabethan clothing. Women were not permitted to take part in the public theater, so roles of women and girls were played by adolescent boys or young men.
KS: But we do want to clarify that just because women couldn't perform as professional actors in public theaters, that does not mean they did not act. Women performed at home for families and guests, in court masques, and in non-public theaters.
ES: As for how the actors prepared for shows, scripts were presented line by line for the actors. During rehearsals, you received a piece of paper with your cue line so you know when to go on stage, as well as your lines in the scene. But no actor had a full script during this time period. Paper was expensive, printing was expensive, and there were always rewrites, even on the day of the show, so it didn't make sense to write a whole script by hand for every actor.
KS: So if that's the case, how did we get Shakespeare's full plays? Well, seven years after his death, two of his actor friends managed to find and collect all the plays and publish them as the First Folio of 1623. And you can learn more about these publications by listening to our mini-episode on the folios and quartos.
ES: At the Globe, wealthy audience members could sit in a box seat while poorer audiences could buy a penny ticket in the standing room space in front of the stage. Those crowded standing room audience members were called penny stinkers until Shakespeare coined the term groundlings, allegedly after the word for small fish. During performances, audiences would stand tightly in a crowd, stare up, and maybe have their mouths agape, hence looking like small fish. Groundlings were a rowdy bunch. Orange girls went around the groundlings section selling oranges, hazelnuts, beer, and sometimes themselves. As I say, seeing a performance at the Globe was more like attending a contemporary baseball game than a contemporary theater event. Again, we recommend listening to our mini-episode on the Globe Theater for more information on this topic.
KS: But just because Elizabethan and Jacobean public theaters were rowdy does not mean they weren't producing plays worth performing and attending.
ES: Playhouses were constantly toeing the line between writing political dramas with discourse on matters of the state and not being shut down by authorities. Any criticism of powerful people could have dangerous consequences for theaters. There was strict dramatic censorship that motivated playwrights towards metaphor in their plays. And if you don't know the history of the period, it's hard to spot the coded meanings as a contemporary audience member.
KS: And the Lord Chamberlain's men did engage in factional politics. This practice reached a climax in 1601 when they performed Richard II on the eve of Essex's abortive rebellion. That was an unsuccessful rebellion to overthrow Elizabeth. Now Richard II is a play about a deposed king, so the performance didn't please Her Majesty or the court. The theater claimed the performance was not to encourage the overthrow of Elizabeth, but to save her from the plotting evil counselors. Whether the court believed them or not, the Chamberlain's Men were under stricter surveillance during the last years of Elizabeth's reign.
ES: And we've talked about this type of push and pull in most, if not all, of the plays.
KS: So yeah, that's pretty much it. Early modern English culture was rapidly changing economically, socially, and culturally. And Shakespeare's plays were influenced by this world. These elements are vital building blocks for discussing his plays.
ES: And again, this episode covers the basics of the period. For more in-depth examinations, please check out our discussion-based and mini-episodes, including interviews with scholars, writers, and artists. We've also linked related episodes to our episode description.
KS: We have one episode left in our three-part Stuff You Should Know intro series. In Part 3, we look at the man himself, William Shakespeare.
ES: But if you haven't yet, you should go back and listen to Part 1, where we look at the monarchy and the English Renaissance. This will help contextualize William Shakespeare's life during a changing England. So go back and catch up if you haven't yet. If not, we hope you'll join us next time. Thank you for listening.
Quote of the Episode:
KS: From Cymbeline, act five, scene five, spoken by Cymbeline, “Live and ask of Cymbeline what boon thou wilt, fitting my county and thy state; I'll give it, yea, though thou do demand a prisoner, the noblest ta'en.”
Shakespeare Anyone? is created and produced by Kourtney Smith and Elyse Sharp.
Episode written and researched by Kourtney Smith with contributions by Elyse Sharp. Revised September 2024.
Music is "Neverending Minute" by Sounds Like Sander.
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Works referenced:
Brown, John Russell, and Peter Thomson, editor and author. “Chapter 6 English Renaissance and Restoration Theatre.” The Oxford Illustrated History of Theatre, pp. 173 - 200. Oxford University Press, 2001
Sherry, Joyce. “Elizabethan Theatre.” YouTube, 4 Jan. 2014, Accessed 6 Sept. 2020, from www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_cTCdkCAcc
